Developed infrastructure is considered to be a hallmark of growth and advancement of an economy. It is because good infrastructure assists in raising productivity, lowering down production costs, improving living standards of the people, alleviating poverty and expanding trade. Keeping its merits in mind, economists worldwide consider infrastructure facilities as the wheels of economic activity, if not the engine.
Genesis of the term ‘infrastructure’
The term infrastructure originated as a military term during World War I wherein it was primarily used to refer to the oil pipelines as well as other capital items. However, in economic literature both ‘infrastructure’ and ‘social overhead capital’ have been used synonymously. Of late, World Development Report (1994) divided infra-structure into economic or physical and social infrastructure. Economic infrastructure includes services such as electricity, transport, roads, water system, commu-nications, irrigation etc. while social infrastructure includes education and health facilities. However, different countries have experienced a wide regional disparity in their development levels attributed to the use of advanced infra-
structure. Infact, use of advanced and modern facilities in one country puts pressure on the governments of other countries to accelerate the pace of national development and make necessary institutional changes to improve the standard of living of citizens.
Social infrastructure in India
To improve the economic growth and quality of life, development of social infrastructure such as education, skill development and health is considered essential. An assessment of these parameters is carried out in the subsections below.
Education: The quality of education is a prickly issue in the country as education affects quality of life, efficiency of employees at the workplace and labour productivity. The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) of 2018 states that Indian children have a huge learning deficit where one in every two students (50.3%) in Indian schools lack basic reading ability not just of their own grade but also of those of three levels below. Similarly, just 44.1% of class VIII students could do simple division. Present central government claims to have achieved a mammoth task by introducing the deadline (March 2020) to train all unqualified school teachers, making Board examinations compulsory for class X (CBSE) students and introducing mechanisms to monitor performance of states under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan online besides constructing toilets in all government schools. However, these claims to improve the quality of education turn out to be minuscule when they are placed for comparison against other countries.
Understandably, a gloomy scenario has emerged owing to the lesser expenditure on educational infrastructure by the government. The same justification may be extended in the case wherein none of the Indian institutions could make it to the top 200 world university rankings (in 2018) though we created the Takshashila and Nalanda universities in our illustrious history. Associated with it, is the problem of availability of skilled labour force, the solution to which also requires timely action by extravagantly spending towards education and skill development - right from the primary classes. However, so far only lip sympathy has been shown when it comes to imparting of skills to the labour force. In India, a consensus on the clear definition of the term ‘skill’ awaits decision.
Health sector: The conditions are not congenial in case of the health sector as well. Lack of hospitals, lesser number of doctors, ill-equipped health professionals, and paucity of funds characterises the Indian health sector. A survey carried out by the National Sample Survey Organization in 2016 highlighted that one out of every four Indian allopathic physicians do not have the requisite qualifications. Further, two-thirds of doctors, nurses, and midwives are working in urban
areas where only 30% of Indians live. Similarly, a study published in British Medical Journal in 2018 stated that there is a severe underrepresentation of women doctors whose proportion stands not more than 41% in the Indian health institutions. In addition to this, more than 80% of Indian doctors and 70% of nurses and midwives are ready to join the private sector.
These figures speak volumes about the poor state of the health sector in India. A comparison of health indicators at the world level is also given. Clearly, it can be highlighted that we have a dearth of public expenditure in the health sector which stands at just 3.9% which is less in all respects and probably the root cause of India’s ailing health sector.
Physical infrastructure in India
In order to keep the economic momentum going, it becomes imperative to strengthen infrastructure facilities like transportation, energy and communication etc. A glimpse of the access and quality of physical infrastructure available in India vis-à-vis other countries of world stands testimony to the fact that quality of infrastructure is not only poor but rather short in supply in India.
It is clear from the following table in context of air transportation of measured in metric tonnes, that the quantity is far less than the East Asian and Pacific regions and the world average. Similarly, container port traffic i.e. the flow of containers from land to sea transport modes, and vice versa, in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) in a standard-size container is also low vis-à-vis East Asian and Pacific regions and also compared to the world average. In context of road traffic, India figures high in mortality caused by road traffic injury (per 100000 population) in comparison to the other countries. Similarly, in case of access to information and communications, our standing is far from satisfactory in contrast to the other countries.
Except for the time required in getting electricity connection (55 days), India’s performance has remained appalling. In the absence of quality infrastructure, high rate of economic growth (even though attained) cannot be sustained. Improvement in it calls for a timely and speedy action by the policymakers.
An unambiguous and proper effort made in the direction of expanding education, health facilities, and physical infrastructure can also help to improve their quality which can further ensure a reduction in poverty, improvement in human development and sustaining high rates of economic growth in India.
India and the World: Comparison of access and quality of education
Nature of Population With Gross Primary Government Skilled labour
the economy Countryatleast some Enrolment School expenditure force percentage secondary Ratio* Dropouton education of total labour education for Rate force 25 years & older
(in %) (Primary) (% of GDP)
2006-2017 2016 2016 (2012-17) (2011-17)
Highly Norway 95.5 100 0.4 7.7 82.4
developed Switzerland 96.8 104 0.6 5.1 85.7
Australia 90 101 - 5.2 78.3
Brazil 60 115 - 5.9 62
Russia 95.6 102 0.7 3.8 96.1
BRICS India 51.6 115 9.8 3.8 18.5
China 77.4 101 - - -
South Africa 75.7 103 - 5.9 47.2
East Asia and Pacific 71 103 - - -
World Average 66.5 105 21.4 4.8 47.9
Source: UNDP Human Development Indices and Indicators (Statistical Update), 2018
Health indicators for India and other countries of the world
Nature CountryChild malnutrition Infant mortality Physicians Hospital Current health
of the percentage under rate (per thousand per 10000 beds perexpenditure
economy age 5 years of age life birth) people 1000 people (percent of GDP
Year (2010-2016) (2016) (2007 to 2007-14 (2015)
2017)
Highly Norway - 2.1 43.9 33 10
developed Switzerland - 3.6 42.5 50 12.1
countries Australia 2 3.1 35 39 9.4
Brazil 7.1 13.5 18.5 23 8.9
Russia - 6.6 39.8 97 5.6
BRICS India 37.9 34.6 7.6 7 3.9
China 8.1 8.5 36.3 38 5.3
South Africa 27.4 34.2 8.2 28 8.2
East Asia and Pacific 17.8 14.2 27.5 31 5.1
World Average 27.4 29.9 18.3 27 9.9
Source: UNDP Human Development Indices and Indicators (Statistical Update), 2018
India and the World: Comparison of the quality of physical infrastructural indicators
Nature of CountryAir transport, Railways goods Container port traffic Mortality caused
the economy freight (million transported TEU : 20 foot by road traffic injury
ton- km)(million ton- km) equivalent units (per 100000 population)
Year 2017 2017 2017 2016
Highly Norway - - 826500 2.7
developed Switzerland 1581.35 8492.34 108061 2.7
countries Australia 1982.58 - 7693643 5.6
Brazil 1736.54 - 10049282 19.7
Russian 6845.22 2491876 4515000 18
BRICS Federation
India 2407.32 620175 13259000 22.6
China 23323.612146466 213719925 18.2
South Africa 833.93 - 4634900 25.9
East Asia and Pacific 74001.43- 415518321 16.90
World Average 213590.25 - 752704435 18.13
Source: UNDP Human Development Indices and Indicators (Statistical Update), 2018
India and the World: Comparison of the quality of physical infrastructural indicators
Nature of CountryTime required Internet users Mobile phone Fixed broadband
the economy to get electricity (% of subscriptions Subscriptions
(days) population) (per 100 people) per 100 people
Year 2017 2016 2016 2017
Highly Norway 66 97.3 109 40.64
developed Switzerland 39 89.1 133.8 46.12
Australia 75 88.2 110.1 32.40
Brazil 88 60.9 117.5 13.80
Russian 73 73.1 159.2 21.60
BRICS Federation
India 55 29.5 85.2 1.33
China 34 53.2 97.3 27.97
South Africa 109 54 147.1 1.98
East Asia and Pacific 64.4 48.4 107.7 21.97
World Average 86.4 45.7 100.5 13.69
Source: UNDP Human Development Indices and Indicators (Statistical Update), 2018
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